'Psychopathy And Borderline Personality Disorder Essay\r'

' universe\r\nPersonality turnovers constitute a major(ip) group in the classification of mental dis browses. According to the noneatic and statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, quartetth edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR),1 these conditions atomic turn of display cases 18 delineate by maladjustive disposition char presenteristics\r\n line of descent early in liveness that put up consistent and serious effects on functioning. Borderline temp erament disorder (BPD) is frequently seen in clinical practice.2 Characterized by emotional turmoil and degenerative suicidality ( felo-de-se ideation and attempts), this oddball of temperament disorder presents some of the to a greater extent or slight demanding and troubling problems in only of psychiatry. The absolute majority of forbearings with BPD be seen in psychiatric clinics or in kickoffhand c atomic government issue 18. The keys to successful man compact onment include make an accurate diagnosi s, maintaining a supportive family with the diligent and establishing hold goals. Although BPD whitethorn persist for years, it does non concluding grade forever, and one go off be reasonably upbeat that or so patients entrust rec all over with cartridge holder.\r\n Psych other(a)apy toilette help belt along up the discovery from BPD. The well-nigh in effect(p) forms of word ca enforce been revea take by psychologists, and therefore when making a referral, physicians should con perspectiver a patient’s qualification to pay for much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) therapy. More re lookup into the ca habituates of BPD is call for, the results of which whitethorn help to develop designate-based approaches to treatment that be practical and ad hocally knowing for this challenging disorder.\r\n THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF edge PERSONALITY DISORDER\r\n epidemiologic studies of soulality disorders be at an early st climb on of development. Co mmunity surveys of adults project indicated that the prevalence of BPD is close to 1% ( kindred to that of schizophrenia).3,4 About 80% of patients receiving therapy for BPD be women,2 besides wake up differences ar less striking in residential atomic number 18a exemplifications.4 As is the case for someoneality disorders in general, BPD is associated with trim d accept cordial class and humble directs of command.3,4\r\n THE ETIOLOGY OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER\r\nWe are only vexning to understand the ca delectations of BPD. As with more or less mental disorders, no single factor explains its development, and multiple factors (biological, psychological and social) all play a role. The biological factors in psycheality disorders consist of temperamental (inborn or heritable) characteristics that present in adulthood as permanent personality traits: patterns of thought, put on and doings that characterize souls and are stable over eon.5 Heritable factor s account for about half of the division in objectiveisticly all traits that have been studied.6\r\nSpecifically, some(prenominal) attainional inst business leader6 and impulsivity7 have a heritable contribution of this magnitude, and studies involving twins have demonstrated that BPD itself tests a similar genetic determine.8 Also, family history studies have bring that driving disorders such as antisocial personality and eye insult are particularly common among startledegree copulations of patients with BPD.9 Studies of primaeval neurotransmitter activity have shown that tea crudeay(a) traits, a major component of BPD, are associated with deficits in central serotonergic functioning.10,11 However, the biological correlates of emotional instability are unknown, and no markers particular(prenominal) to the overall disorder have been identified.10\r\nThe psychological factors in BPD depose be striking but are non consistent. BPD first presents clinically in adol escence, at a mean age of 18 years.12 Although umteen patients call adversities such as family dysfunction as well as supposition and impulsive symptoms that go back to childhood, longitudinal data are ask to de stipulationine the precise influence of early try factors.\r\n13 Reports of a risque frequency of traumatic events during childhood in this people need to clutch into account community studies, which show extensive resiliency following trauma, particularly for less severe adversities.13 The most wishful studies have shown that a quarter of patients with BPD describe sexual ab apply from a care burgeon onwardr14 and that about a thirdly report severe forms of abuse.15 However, although child abuse is clearly a wind upangerment factor, it is not particularized to BPD.13 In general, adverse life events are not consistently pathogenic by themselves but, kind of, go sequelae in vulnerable populations.16\r\n complaisant factors in BPD are suggested by indirect ev idence. Thus far, there have been no cross-cultural studies of BPD, although characteristic symptoms such as recurrent self-annihilation attempts are less common in traditional societies, in which there is belittled revision from one generation to the next, but are on the step-up in modern societies and in societies undergoing fast change.17\r\n DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER\r\nThe term â€Å" clay sculptureline” is a misnomer, based on an honest-to-god opening that this form of pathology lies on a border surrounded by psychosis and neurosis. Actually, BPD is a complex syndrome whose central features are instability of mood, impulse go over and interpersonal relationships.2 shock 1 presents the DSM-IV-TR1 criteria, reorganized in relation to these sanctioned dimensions, as well as cognitive symptoms. Since the DSM-IV-TR begs only 5 of 9 criteria to be present, making a diagnosis on this basis leads to heterogeneity; more precise res earch definitions have been developed that require high scores for all 3 dimensions.18\r\nThe furbish upive symptoms in BPD involve rapid mood shifts, in which emotional states tend to dying only a few hours.19 When affective instability is monitored with standardized instruments,20 emotions are make up to be intense but thermolabile to outside(a) circumstances, with a strong tendency toward baseless outbursts. Levels of affective instability are most predictive of self-destruction attempts.21 Impulsive symptoms include a spacious range of behaviours and are central to diagnosis.22 The combination of affective instability with impulsivity in BPD23 helps account for a clinical presentation marked by continuing suicidality and by instability of interpersonal relationships.23 Finally, cognitive symptoms are in any case frequent. In one case series,24 about 40% of 50 patients with BPD had quasi- psychotic thoughts. In another series,25 27% of 92 patients insured psychotic epi sodes. In a third series,26 psychotic symptoms were found to predict self-harm in patients with personality disorders.\r\nBPD is common in practice. A recent deal involving patients in an emergency department who had attempted suicide showed that 41% of those with a history of multiple suicide attempts met the criteria for BPD this disorder.27 However, many cases are as well as seen in primary care settings. Data from a survey conducted in a US urban primary care practice indicated that BPD was present in 6.4% of a s type Aerele of 218 patients.28 Because of the wide range of symptoms seen in BPD that are also typical of other disorders (Table 1), such as mood and anxiety disorders, heart and soul abuse and eating disorders,29 patients may be felt to have one of these conditions age their BPD goes undetected. The most common disorder associated with BPD is depression, but in BPD, symptoms are usually associated with mood instability kinda than with the extended and continuo us periods of lower mood seen in classic mood disorders.19\r\nAlso, because of characteristic mood swings, BPD is very much mistaken for bipolar disorder.30 However, patients with BPD do not show continuously elevated mood but quite exhibit a pattern of rapid shifts in affect related to environmental events, with â€Å"high” periods that pass for hours quite than for days or weeks.30 BPD may be mistaken for schizophrenia; however, preferably of long-term psychotic symptoms, patients with BPD possess â€Å"micropsychotic” phenomena of short duration (lasting hours or at most a few days), auditory hallucinations without passing play of insight (patients with schizophrenia do not write out that a hallucination is imaginary, whereas patients with BPD do), paranoid trends and depersonalization states in which patients have themselves or their environment as un solid. 24 Finally, patients with BPD are at increased risk of substance abuse, which forms part of the cl inical picture of widespread impulsivity.2\r\nTo make BPD in practice, clinicians must first establish whether a patient has the overall characteristics of a personality disorder set forth in the DSM-IV-TR;1 that is, long-term problems modify apprehension, mood, interpersonal functioning and impulse control that begin early in life and are associated with nonadaptive personality traits, such as neuroticism (being advantageously prone to anxiety or depression, or both) or impulsivity. Personality disorders ordure a good deal account relegate for the multiplicity and chronicity of symptoms than tush alternating(a) diagnoses such as mood or anxiety disorders.\r\nThe next footmark is a personality sound judgment, which requires a good history. Although practitioners go out be able to obtain infallible learning from most patients during a routine visit, they may also, with the patient’s consent, wish to speak to family members or friends. The final step is to si c the category that best fits the clinical picture. To diagnose BPD, clinicians need to establish that patterns of affective instability, impulsivity and smooth relationships have been consistent over term.\r\n THE COURSE AND direction OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISODERs\r\nManaging patients with BPD can be onerous for clinicians because they may have to deal with repeat suicide threats and attempts over years. Also, patients with BPD do not easily extol boundaries and may acquire overly attached to their therapists.31 When practitioners peter out to diagnose BPD, they may be at risk of becoming overinvolved with patients who suffer greatly but can be personally appealing to the physicians.\r\nFortunately, most patients with BPD change with time.32â€34 About 75% volition recuperate close to normal functioning by the age of 35 to 40 years, and 90% forget recover by the age of 50.32 Unfortunately, about 1 in 10 patients eventually succeeds in committing suicide.35 Howeve r, this resultant is difficult to predict, and 90% of patients improve despite having threatened to end their lives on multiple occasions.\r\nThe mechanism of recovery in BPD is not practicedy understood, but impulsivity generally decreases with age, and patients condition over time how to avoid the situations that give them the most trouble (e.g., intense love affairs), stupefying stable niches that provide the structure they need.35\r\nBPD is a therapeutic challenge. A series of randomized controlled trials of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy36â€47,50,52â€54 have been create; however, the trials had a number of defects, most particularly undersizing samples, attrition and durations that were too short (usually 8â€12 weeks) for a chronic disorder that can last for years. Finally, outcomes in these studies were generally calculated by self-report and did not indicate whether the clinical picture had actually shown full remission. The pharmacologic treatment of BPD remains limited in scope. By and large, the result can be described as a mild degree of symptom relief. A number of elements, including low-dose atypical neuroleptics,38 circumstantial serotonin reuptake inhibitors39,41â€43 and mood stabilizers,44,45 all mitigate impulsive symptoms.\r\nHowever, antidepressants are much less efficient for mood symptoms in BPD patients than in patients without a personality disorder.48 Benzodiazepines are not very profitable in BPD and carry some danger of abuse.49 Thus, although several drugs â€Å"take the edge off” symptoms, they do not produce remission of BPD. Failure to understand this contingent has led to polypharmacy regimens, on the assumption that multiple drugs are needed to target all aspects of the disorder. The result is that many patients baffle 4â€5 agents †with all their attendant side effects12 †in the absence of evidence from clinical trials sustenance the efficacy of such combinations. Future resea rch may lead to the development of agents more specific to the symptoms seen in BPD. The mainstay of treatment for BPD is still psychotherapy.\r\nDialectical behaviour therapy is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy that targets affective instability and impulsivity, employ group and individual(a) sessions to teach patients how to regulate their emotions. This form of behaviour therapy has been shown to be good in bringing suicidal behaviours under control within a year.50â€53 However, whether this method is effective in the long term is unknown.\r\nThere is evidence from a randomized controlled trial supporting the use of a modified form of psychoanalytic therapy in a day-treatment setting that also makes us of cognitive techniques.54 Unfortunately, these forms of psychotherapy for BPD are expensive in impairment of re originations and are not generally available. In practice, therapy tends to be practical and supportive. Practitioners who manage these cases can also u se statemental materials for patients and their families.31\r\n BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER AND self-destruction\r\n The main problem that practitioners face in managing cases of BPD is chronic suicidality. Physicians in primary care settings are active to care for many patients with psychotic disorders but are apparent to ask psychiatrists to manage patients who make repeated suicide threats and attempts, or to suggest hospital admission. However, there has been little research on the Efectiveness of hospitalization for the treatment of BPD and no evidence that it prevents completion of suicide.55\r\nSuicidality in BPD peaks when patients are in their early 20s, but completed suicide is most common after 3035 and usually occurs in patients who fail to recover after many attempts at treatment. In contrast, suicidal actions such as impulsive overdoses, most often seen in younger patients, do not usually carry a high short-term risk and function to communicate distr ess.56 Self-mutilating behaviours such as chronic cutting, often referred to as â€Å"suicidal,” are problematic but are not associated with suicidal heart and instead serve to regulate hard-pressed emotional states.56 Practitioners should move beyond their concerns about these patients and instead concentrate on managing symptoms and the life problems that exacerbate suicidal thoughts or behaviours.\r\n THEORIES OF BEHAVIOR INTENT\r\n Explaining and predicting consumer style has been the centralise of research for many years. trade research seeks to find the answers as to why people make specific choices and how can these be predicted. Are there commonalities among purchasing groups that can be identified as predictors? The publications available is rich, as researchers try to understand the storm forces and motivators of the consumer.\r\nHovland and Rosenberg (1960) proposed that attitude, acting as an intervening or hash out uncertain, consists of tether components: acquaintance ( noesis, ability), affect (beliefs, ideas) and conation ( style or flavor of demeanor) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Hansen, 1972). In order for behaviour plan to hold up, the three components must be present (Fazio & Olsen, 2003).\r\nFishbein and Ajzen (1975) proposed that attitude does not consist of three components, but is the moderate or intervening uncertain between recognition and the demeanoral cloaked. Attitude is derived from cognition, which in turn determines the intent to act or not (Ryan, 1982) They proposed that researchers need to require at four categories: 1) association, opinions and beliefs (cognition) about the bearing, 2) attitude (affect) towards the object, 3) style intent (conation) and 4) observed behavior to the object (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).\r\nThe specific action cannot be pertinacious by the assessment of the experience of attitude toward an object but rather by dint of the person’s in clination to commit the act (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Previous studies have shown that people may have a positive attitude toward an object; however, the intention of behavior bequeath be negative. This was found in studies concerning blood donation, preventative use, and racial preconceived idea (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2005; Burnkrant and Page, 1982; Fazio and Olson, 2003; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).\r\nAlthough many previous surveys showed favorable attitudes toward blood donation, condom use, and other races, their intention to give blood, use condoms or socialize with racial groups was negative. Therefore, the intent of behavior of an individual must be determined, as well as his beliefs and attitude. An in-depth discussion of each component allow for be addressed at a later point of this chapter.\r\n MOA THEORY\r\n Related to the behavioral intent theories is the motivating- fortune-ability supposition of litigateing knowledge. Although this theory is in receipt to intercourse outcomes, the components are relative to this employment. According to the MOA theory, a person must have motivation, fortune, and ability to appendage instruction in order to develop an attitude towards a sword, which can be enhanced through ad cues (MacInnes et al., 1991). Motivation in ad unconscious processing refers to the consumers’ testamentingness to share processing resources; whereas, opportunity is the amount of attention that is allocated without happy chance; and ability is the â€Å" attainments or proficiencies” or prior knowledge (MacInnes et al., 1991). Each component of the MacInnes et al. influence leave be discussed in greater detail.\r\n Cognition †Knowledge, Opinions and Beliefs\r\nThe cognition or knowledge, opinions and beliefs component of the Fishbein and Ajzen flummox is considered to be the driving force of the model. Beliefs about an object are formed through direct observation, with tuitio n received from outside sources or by inference processes (Fazio and Olsen, 2003; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). The data or knowledge sought in belief formation in a specific situation can be influenced by the effort needed to obtain the information, the time constraint, and the likelihood that the information lead be useful (Hansen, 1972).\r\n opportunity\r\nOpportunity pertains to those distractions or environmental factors which affect the consumers’ attention to information (Agho et al., 1993; MacInnes and Jaworski, 1991; Mooy and Robben, 2002). Fazio and Olsen (2003) further proposed in their mood or Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants of attitude-behavior relationship that in order for deliberate processes such as activities utilize in belief formation, opportunity to engage in the deliberate process must first be available, otherwise, the consumer will resort to memory (Fazio & Olsen, 2003).\r\n Time is reflective of opportunity as it influen ces consumer behavior and choices. This finite and intangible resource is allocated by the consumer by choice, and is acquired by trading for another resource such as money (Bergadaa, 1990). Therefore, consumers must choose how to use and manage their time. Okada and Hoch (2004) found that consumers place a high cherish on time spent if the outcome is positive and a lesser prise if the experience is negative. Consumers who have little time pressure will process the information in a soft fashion. However, consumers who experience greater time pressure will generally use less time to process the information (Suri and Monroe, 2003).\r\n Therefore, this film will propose that if the consumer has little time or decrease opportunity to throw on search and information gathering, he or she will be more apparent to mesh the services of a truetor. However, if the consumer is seeking monetary savings, and believes that time is less than the revalue of monetary costs , that consumer will participate in a For bargain by owner transaction.\r\nReference groups, friends, and family are beta resources for the search of information, which is an full part of bargain foring or considering real domain. This social network provides a means for send and receiving information. Word-of-mouth communication is important in make the attitudes and behaviors of the consumer. â€Å"Personal word-of-mouth influence has a more decisive role in influencing behavior than advertisement and other marketer dominated sources (Herr et al., 1991). Brown and Reingen (1987) found that the stronger the relationship tie, the more influential the communication. The weaker relationships, on the other hand, were instrumental in developing a bridge circuit in the communication flow and in providing a means for referrals. The opportunity to obtain information increases as the number of people a person comes into gain with increases. \r\nAbility\r\nAbility comprises the second component of cognition. non only does the consumer need opportunity to process information, but he or she must have the skill set or ability to entranceway and process the information (MacInnes et al., 1991; Mooy and Robben, 2002). Any increase in ability can reduce the search process for information, as consumers will rely more on inhering information than external information (Gibler and Nelson, 2003).\r\nThe cyberspace has become a primary source for point of intersection research. By apply the net profit, consumers are afforded the ability to research a specific harvest-home, as well as contrast convergences, judges and monetary value. â€Å"Retail creasees must struggle with facing an era of unprecedented consumer force out obtained through Internet information” (Schoenbachler and Gordon, 2002). This phenomenon would apply to the sale or obtain of a property base as well (Muhanna, 2000).\r\n Technology and the Internet have pr ovided consumers access to information and yields that were previously difficult, if not im manageable to obtain, as well as have significantly influenced lowering of search costs. Armed with this advantage, consumers are now afforded with possibilities of researching on the Internet and taking virtual tours, or viewing pictures and descriptions of available properties from the comfort of their own home. The use of the Internet as one source of information will reduce the cost to the consumer during the search process (Baen, 1997; Baen and Guttery, 1997; Bakos, 1998; Seiler et al., 2001; Giaglis et al., 2002).\r\n Ability is an intangible attribute that is often related to age and information. As a person ages, or attains higher trains of command, the aim of ability increases (Alba and Marmorstein, 1987; Huneke et al., 2004; Maheswaran and Sternthal, 1990). progress contributes to the informal knowledge base while education contributes to the formal knowledge.\r \n Experience is also often associated with the train of ability (Alba and Marmorstein, 1987; Huneke et al., 2004; Maheswaran and Sternthal, 1990). Alba and Marmorstein (1987) studied the correlational statistics of frequency or the number of times an event occurs, of experience to knowledge trains. The greater the number of times a person was exposed to information or experience, the process of finding making was observed to be faster and less complicated. Furthermore, â€Å"task practiceance is improved by contrastive types of experiences” (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987). Gibler and Nelson (2003) described that experienced home buyers remember which dimensions were useful in the past; on the other hand, unversed buyers ar\r\ne more susceptible to external influences, such as real soil agents, in determining their criteria for selection. Therefore, the more homes a person has bought and/or sold, the more experience he/she has gained, and the less seemin g will that person enlist the services of a real soil agent. The measurement of the take aims of ability by the consumer can be ascertained by examining age, education level and prior experience. â€Å"The greater the accumulation of experience and knowledge as one ages creates a reduced desire for additional information” (Gibler and Nelson, 2003).\r\n Conation/Motivation †certified Variable\r\n Conation is defined as behavior or behavior intent. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) determined that conation is motivation or behavior intent. carriage only occurs if motivation is present to perform the behavior. MacInnes et al. (1991) stated in their MOA theory that motivation is defined as the consumers’ desire or readiness to process the information. Therefore, motivation can be defined as behavior intent. Opportunity, deliberate by time and social stirs, and ability, mensural by Internet access, education and experience (cognition) instanter influe nce the level of motivation or behavior intent (conation).\r\n Hovland and Rosenberg (1959) proposed that attitude consists of three elements: cognition, affect and conation. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) argued, however, that attitude is affect, or the feelings toward a behavior. â€Å"Attitudes reflect reasons for acting, and centering on what the ending maker does or can do” (Bagozzi et al., 2003) For the purposes of this arena, affect and attitude will be treated as the homogeneous and will be referred to as affect. Affect is the result of cognition (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001).\r\nTherefore, if behavior intent is a result of survey and thinking is the result of cognition, then persuasion will act as a moderating variable. As the persuasion increases positively and based upon previous studies, behavior intent will increase positively. Media habits, or message word-painting, will also moderate cognition-affect-behavior intent (MacInnes et al., 1991; Mo oy and Rubben, 2003). The higher the levels of exposure to television, radio, newspaper, and internet, the more frequency the messages will occur (Alba and Marmorstein, 1987).\r\n demographics have been routinely employ in marketing to countenance in segmenting markets based upon gender, age group, income, culture, marital status, education and class size. These variables are often referred to as demographics; however, as pointed out by Art Weinstein (1994), many variables employ for demography are often socioeconomic. It is common in marketing research to refer to all of these variables as â€Å"demographics” (Weinstein, 1994).\r\n Demographics are commonly utilise in business management due to the fact that they are blowsy to collect, group and analyze. Furthermore, demographic variables typically have an interrelated correlation, which facilitates generalization and outline of demographic data (Weinstein, 1994).\r\n kinsperson income and household size have a direct correlation with the monetary asset or value. Consumers with lower incomes, or who have a large number of members in the household, are generally more price conscious. Therefore, it is proposed that these consumers would prefer to participate in a For Sale by Owner transaction, foregoing the commissions paid to a real nation of the realm agent.\r\n The purpose of this turn over is to get wind those determinants which persuade a consumer to participate in a For Sale by Owner transaction. Therefore, in order to identify these factors, the proposed model is an integration of the three major theoretical models discussed.\r\nFishbein and Ajzen’s expectancy value model, and Hovland and Rosenberg’s tripartite theory of behavior, provides the cognition-affect-conation model and cognition-attitude-motivation. Integrated with this model, is the MOA model as proposed by MacInnes, Moorman and Jaworski (1991), in which beha vior is influenced by motivation, opportunity and ability. Through literature, it has been determined that opportunity and ability are components of cognition, and motivation is influenced by cognition and moderated by affect.\r\n METHODOLOGY\r\nStudy Population\r\n The selected population for this study is the participants of a study conducted by Bluefield State College inform of Business. The purpose of the study was to collect raw data regarding the real estate buying and portion outing behavior of the consumer in the local area, which would be available for prospective abbreviation and interpretation. Their sample is composed of participants over the age of 18 at a local yearly exposition held in Mercer County, western hemisphere Virginia. Mercer County has a population of 61, 589 people with a median(prenominal) income of $28,130.\r\nIn 2004, 30,207 trapping units existed in the County, with 63.5% of the population living in the uniform house in 2000. The homeownership rate was 76.8% in 2000 (US count Bureau). The attending rate at this particular event was approximately 6000 people, approximately 10% of the population (Princeton Mercer County house of Commerce, 2006). Table 2 provides a summation of the demographics of Mercer County, western hemisphere Virginia, in comparison to the State of West Virginia and joined States averages.\r\n Table 2. Demographic Data Mercer County, WV, State of West Virginia and join States (US Census Bureau, 2000)\r\nDemographic\r\nMercer County\r\nWest Virginia\r\nUnited States\r\nPopulation\r\n62, 980\r\n1,816,815\r\n281,421,906\r\nMedian Household Income\r\n28,120\r\n32,967\r\n43,318\r\nHomeownership\r\n76.8%\r\n75.2%\r\n66.2%\r\nFor Sale By Owner\r\nN/A\r\nN/A\r\n13%\r\nLiving in the same home in 1995 and 2000\r\n63.5%\r\n63.3%\r\n54.1%\r\nHousing units\r\n30,207\r\n866,944\r\n122,671,734\r\nHigh schooldays Graduates\r\n72.1%\r\n75.2%\r\n80.4%\r\n bach’s Degree or above\r\n13.8%\r\n14 .8%\r\n24.4%\r\nIn order to determine the appropriate sample size needed to complete this study, the following formula was used (Malhotra, 372); whereas the number of possible homeowners is 76.8% or 77% (US Census, 2000),\r\nratio of population that are homeowners (Ï€) = .70\r\nDesired precision level (D) =.05\r\nConfidence Level (CL) = 95%\r\nz value associated with 95% confidence level =1.96:\r\nTherefore, the number of samples needed:\r\n n = Ï€(1-Ï€)z2/D2\r\n n=.77(1-.77)(1.96)2/.052\r\n n=.77(.23)(3.8416)/.25\r\n n=272.13 or 272 samples needed\r\n The Bluefield State College study contains 356 usable surveys of individuals rather than households, which is in excess of the 272 samples required for this study. Based upon attendance of 6,000, this gifts .0593% or 6% of the attendees surveyed.\r\nInstrument\r\n The questionnaire developed consists of 42 questions including 35 opinion statements followed by 4-point Likert Scale responses and 8 demographic questions. The Likert responses ranged from â€Å" for the most part dis scoff” = 1 to â€Å" broadly assure” = 4. Therefore, those who prefer to grease ones palms or look at real estate without the assistance of a real estate agent will answer 1’s or mostly disagree. These questions were drawn from Mitchell’s 1980 VALS; however, drawing from the works of Wells (1975) the constructs were changed to reflect product specific behavior.\r\nOpportunity\r\nH1 As the level of opportunity, metrical by time and social contacts, increases, the behavior intent or motivation to buy or trade in real estate without a professional agent will increase.\r\n Two variables will be measured to identify the positive or negative level of opportunity. As previously stated in the literature, opportunity is influenced by time and social contacts.\r\nSix opinion statements are used to identify moveents’ at titudes and opinions regarding time, or the pretermit of time. These statements are followed by four Lickert- photographic plate responses to choose from with 1 = â€Å"mostly disagree” and 4 = â€Å"mostly agree”. An example statement from the questionnaire is, â€Å"I spend more than 40 hours a week outside of the home”. Those respondents, who disagree with this statement, will have more time available to search or sell a home.\r\n Previous research cited has shown that reference groups are an important factor during the information search phase of the decision making process. Therefore, the more people a consumer comes into contact with, the greater access to information. The questionnaire contains eight opinion statements with 4-point Lickert-scale responses. These statements represent the respondent’s network by communicate questions in regards to school, community, church and family gatherings.\r\n It is proposed that respondents who have a b igger network of social contacts will have access to more information than those who choose not to participate in outside of the home activities. Therefore, based upon the scale responses, 1=mostly disagree and 4=mostly agree, responses that are higher numbers, will most likely have a stronger social network. For instance, the statement â€Å"I am active in my community”, reflects the activities of the respondent. If the response is a 4, then the respondent has outside of the home social contacts and access to information.\r\nAffect\r\nH1a The direction of the level of affect will moderate the level of motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent.\r\n In order to determine affect, or beliefs, the survey provided seven belief statements. Respondents responded using a Lickert scale, with â€Å"1” = mostly disagree to â€Å"4” = mostly agree. A sample statement from the questionnaire is â€Å"I believe real estate ag ents are a necessity when buying or marketing a home”. Responses with higher numbers will have a strong belief concerning real estate agents.\r\nAbility\r\nH2 As ability, measured by age, education and experience, increases, behavior intent or motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent will increase.\r\nAbility is measured by three variables: experience, Internet access and education.\r\nIn order to determine experience, the survey provides two questions and dozen opinion statements. Experience can be measured by the number of homes purchased or sold in a lifetime. Respondents to the questionnaire were asked to choose 1, 2, 3, or 4 or more. As the number of homes purchased or sold in a lifetime increases, the level of experience increases. The highest possible response will be a 4 and the lowest 1. Furthermore, experience with a real estate agent is questioned. If the respondent had used an agent to buy or sell his/her home the answ er would be no, represented by the number 1. If yes, then number 2.\r\nInternet presence, which is also an indicator of information access, is determined in the questionnaire by requesting the respondent to choose which electronic mail providers they use for email. The more email providers would indicate a higher Internet usage of the respondent. Also, based upon the provider, it can be determined if the respondent has high speed cable or DSL access. Those respondents without email would respond to â€Å"none”.\r\nInformation regarding education level will then be analyzed to determine correlation with the questions and statements regarding ability. According to the literature cited, it is proposed that as the level of education, Internet access, and experience increases ability will increase, which will directly disturb behavior intent.\r\nMotivation (Behavior Intent)\r\nThe next 12 statements contained in the survey are opinion statements regarding the use of real e state agents, brokers and intentions of the respondent. A sample statement from the questionnaire is â€Å"I would always use a real estate agent to help with purchasing a home”. Respondents were given four Lickert-scale responses to choose from with 1 = â€Å"mostly disagree” and 4 = â€Å"mostly agree”. Therefore, â€Å"3” and â€Å"4” would indicate the respondent’s intent to use a real estate agent, rather than for sale by owner.\r\nMedia Habits\r\nH1b An increase in the level of media habits will moderate the level of opportunity and its relationship with motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent..\r\n \r\n H2b An increase in the level of media habits will moderate the level of ability and its relationship with \r\n Media habits, is also an indicator of information access. Survey questions ask respondents the number of hours spent each week watching television, listening to the radio, as well as newspapers read. It is proposed that as the hours spent watching television or listening to the radio will moderate cognition and behavior intent. As the number of hours exposed to media increases, the level of behavior intent will increase.\r\nDemographics\r\nH1c Demographics, measured by age, household income and household size will middle(a) the relationship between opportunity and motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent. \r\n \r\n H2c Demographics, measured by age, household income and household size will mediate the relationship between ability and motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent.\r\n Demographic information regarding age, household income and household size will be collected. This information will mediate cognition and behavior intent.\r\nQuestions concerning gender, marital status and zip law will be used as material body or extraneous variab les which are not statistically significant in this study.\r\nData depth psychology\r\ndescriptive Statistics\r\n The data that will be used in this study has been collected by the Bluefield State College School of Business; however, statistical analysis has not been completed. Therefore, raw data obtained will be used for this study.\r\nThe first step will be determining the descriptive statistics of the variables used in the study. This will provide the mean, median and standard deviation of each survey question. The sum total mean will then be used for each variable. The results of this analysis will then be used to conduct inferential statistic analysis.\r\ninferential Statistics\r\nInferential statistic analysis will be conducted in four steps. denary reversal analysis will be conducted to determine the affect of the moderating and mediating variables. The dependent variable is dichotomous; therefore, logit analysis will be conducted, followed by model fit and consequence testing.\r\nDue to the conception of several commutative variables, mediators and moderators influencing the dependent variable, multiple fixing analysis will be conducted to determine the relationships (Hair, 2003, p579). The steps that will be taken to accomplish this, as recommended by Hair (2003, p579) are:\r\nassess the statistical significance of the overall regression model using the F statistic with a level of significance <= 4.95 (Hair, 2003, p663)\r\n rate the obtained r2 for magnitude which will lie between -1 and 1 and not twin to 0\r\nexamine the individual regression coefficients and their t statistics to see which are statistically significant <= 2.96 ((Hair, 2003, p655)\r\nexamine the beta coefficients to assess relative influence, within a range of .25 to .8 (Lane, 2006).\r\n sevenfold regression analysis uses the following formula (Lane, 2006); whereby, Y= predicted variable (For Sale by Owner), X=predictor variables or independent vari ables: knowledge, wealth, accessibility, and b=beta coefficient.\r\nY’ = b1X1 + b2X2 + … + bkXk + A\r\nThose variables not meeting the criteria set forth above, will be removed from further statistical analysis.\r\nThis study has a double star dependent variable. The respondents are likely to participate in buying or selling real estate without an agent, or they are not. Therefore, the binary logit model will be used to betoken the probability of the behavior intent.\r\nAccording to Malhotra (2007, p.596), the logit model is as follows:\r\n loge (P/1-P) = a0 + a1X1 + a2X2 + …+akX\r\nwhere\r\n P = probability of participating in buying or selling without an agent\r\n Xi = independent variable\r\n ai = parameter to be estimated\r\nThe second step in logit analysis, is determining the model fit, which determines the proportion of correct predictions (Malhotora, p.597). The two likelihood functions that will be used in t his study are Cox and Snell R square and Nagelkerke R square. both functions will be used, as Cox and Snell is limited in that the measure can not equal 1; however, the Nagelkerke overcomes this limitation (Malhotora, p.597). Based upon the results of these functions, the predicted values can be compared to actual values to determine the plowshare of correct predictions.\r\nThe third step in logit analysis is significance testing. Wald’s statistic is used to test the significance of the estimated coefficients. Wald’s statistic is tested as follows:\r\nWald=(ai/SEai)2\r\nwhere,\r\n ai = logistic coefficient for the predictor variable\r\n SEai = standard error of the logistical coefficient\r\nâ€Å"The Wald statistic is chi-square distributed with 1 degree of freedom if the variable is metric” (Malhotora, p. 597).\r\nAll statistical analysis for this study will be conducted using the statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Gr ad Pack version 14.0.\r\nData analysis of this data will include exploring the relationship among independent variables and likelihood of behavior intent or motivation. statistical analysis will follow the stages set forth in the following chart:\r\nTable 3. Statistical Analysis Flow Chart\r\nLimitations\r\n The possible limitations of this study include, but are not limited to:\r\nThis study will identify propensity to participate as either buyer or seller. Differences may exist among the two groups, which can be addressed in a future study.\r\nThe questions, although similar to previously published questionnaires, may not result in the same validity.\r\nsummary of Statistical Analysis\r\n A elaborate summary of the variables and statistical analysis to be used in this study is as follows:\r\nTable 4. Summary of Variable Statistic Analysis\r\nMOA scheme Categories\r\nVariable fn\r\n anticipation Value Theory Categories\r\nVariable Name\r\nStatistical Analys is\r\nMotivation Intent\r\nDV\r\nConation\r\n \r\ndescriptive Statistics\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\nModerator\r\nAffect\r\n \r\ndescriptive Statistics\r\n four-fold reverse\r\nOpportunity\r\nIV\r\nCognitive\r\nTime\r\ndescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\nModerator\r\nAffect\r\n \r\ndescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\n \r\nCognitive\r\nSocial Contacts\r\ndescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\nModerator\r\nAffect\r\n \r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\nAbility\r\nIV\r\nCognitive\r\nExperience\r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\n \r\nCognitive\r\nEducation\r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\n \r\nCognitive\r\nInternet find\r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\nMedia Habits\r\nModerator\r\n \r\n \r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regress ion\r\nLogit Analysis\r\nDemographics\r\nMediator\r\n \r\n fester\r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\nHH Income\r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\nHH Size\r\nDescriptive Statistics\r\nMultiple Regression\r\nLogit Analysis\r\nREFERENCES\r\nAgarwal, S. and Teas, R.K. 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